James Madison

The father of our Constitution, James Madison is considered one of the greatest presidents in American history, being beloved by historians for his brilliant crisis leadership during the War of 1812. For me, however, Madison is the epitome of averageness. Madison deserves and fortunately receives praise for his effective leadership during the War of 1812, which allowed the American nation to avert devastation and collapse. At the same time, it's balanced out by the fact that the conflict was almost entirely his own fault.

In 1803, 6 years before Madison entered office, the Napoleonic Wars - a series of conflicts between France, which fell to the control of Napoleon Bonaparte in a coup at the end of the French Revolution in 1799, and the powers of Europe - broke out. To increase their odds in the various wars, the British and French militaries adopted a strategy known as impressment. Using this policy, they would attack a neutral ship, take control of the vessel, and force those on board to enlist in the armed forces of whatever country was carrying out that specific instance of impressment. If it was carried out by British forces, then they would be forced to join the British military. If it was carried out by French forces, then they would be forced to join the French military.

American merchants were disproportionately targeted in the use of impressment, creating tensions between the US and the countries of Britain and France. Then-US President Thomas Jefferson then began searching for a way to convince these two powers to cease engaging in impressment. To do this, Jefferson, on December 22, 1807, signed the Embargo Act. This law prohibited the US, its citizens, and its businesses from trading with other countries.

Jefferson's logic was twofold: One, since the US would no longer be trading with other countries, American ships would be out at Sea far less often, making them less vulnerable to impressment. Two, the Embargo Act would deprive Britain and France of American goods and the potential profits to be gained from trading with the US. Hence, it would place an economic pressure on the two countries to end the use of impressment.

Ultimately, though, the Embargo Act did not work in its goal. Rather, it merely devastated the American economy. It was in this economic climate that Madison, in 1808, won the presidency, replacing Jefferson as president on March 4, 1809. His first act upon entering office was to, on March 7, 1809, sign the Non-Intercourse Act. This new law repealed the Embargo Act, which is obviously a good thing. However, while it lifted trade restrictions on nearly every country, it maintained the ban on trade with Britain and France. This worsened the tensions between America and Britain and France created by the advent of impressment. Had Madison just removed all trade restrictions, rather than maintaining his ban on trade with Britain and France, tensions wouldn't have increased.

Now, tensions with France subsided in November of 1810, when Madison further scaled back trade restrictions, legalizing commerce with France. However, he still preserved the restrictions against Britain, further inflating these tensions. Yet again, if Madison just repealed the Embargo Act in its entirety, rather than sporadically and gradually lifting its restrictions while continuing to outlaw trade with countries we were already on bad terms with, tensions wouldn't have grown nearly as severe.

Exactly a year later, on November 7, 1811, then-governor of the Indiana Territory and future-President William Henry Harrison defeated Native American forces in the Battle of Tippecanoe. After this encounter, the British government, in retaliation against the trade restrictions against it instituted by Jefferson's government and stubbornly held onto by Madison, began aiding Native Americans in their resistance against westward expansion. This intensified the growing tensions. But yet again, had Madison just instantly dismantled the Embargo Act, the tensions that led to this decision by the British government never would have existed.

Following the arrival of British aid for the Native Americans, a block in Congress formed known as the War Hawks, which worked to convince Madison to declare war on Britain. By the end of the spring of 1812, Madison had succumbed to their pressure. On June 1, 1812, Madison appeared before Congress and asked them to draft a declaration of war against Britain. Congress obliged and wrote such a document. Then, on June 18, 1812, Madison signed it, beginning the War of 1812.

I won't go into an in-depth description of the conflict, but I will provide two details that highlight just how irresponsible it was to begin this conflict: On August 24, 1814, British troops, in retaliation against an 1813 American attack on the British-Canadian city of York and in an effort to deplete the US' morale, attacked Washington DC. During this attack, the British military destroyed some of the city's most valuable buildings: The original versions of the White House, Capitol Building, and Library of Congress. In fact, Jefferson, who was still alive and in retirement, had to resort to donating his own books to help recreate the Library of Congress.

Soon after, on September 6, 1814, British forces camped out near Plattsburgh, New York. Their plan was to capture the city, which would give them access to Lake Champlain. From there, they would cross into the lake and destroy all the American warships there. Thankfully, the American military won that battle, and the British soldiers surrendered on September 11, 1814. However, had London won that battle, they would not only have access to Lake Champlain but 3 different rivers that would collectively lead them to just about any area in all of New York State. If the Battle of Plattsburgh ended in a British victory, all of New York could have fallen to British hands.

On December 24, 1814, the Treaty of Ghent was signed. This agreement restored the geopolitical conditions that existed between Britain and America prior to the war and said that until both the British and American legislatures ratified the treaty, the war would continue. A little under a week later, on December 30, 1814, Parliament ratified the Treaty of Ghent. Finally, on February 17, 1815, Congress ratified the document, ending the War of 1812.

The War of 1812 left the American economy in shambles. So, to help rebuild the country's economy, a former-War Hawk named Henry Clay proposed the American System, a package of reforms Clay believed would help the economy recover. The American System advocated:

• High tariffs - This, Clay said, would discourage the sale of imported products made outside of the US, as such products would be far more expensive due to the tariffs. This would preserve domestic producers, keeping their workers employed.
• Increased funding to roads - Clay believed that funding roads - and hence improving them - would make travel between the northern and southern US far easier. This would allow for more commerce between the two regions, increasing spending and improving the economy as a result.
• Temporary national bank - After the Revolutionary War, George Washington, in 1791, founded the Bank of the United States. This was a national bank meant to dissolve after 20 years. Alexander Hamilton, who convinced Washington to create the bank, believed that this would further centralize the economy, and allow the government to implement a more effective response to the economic issues caused by the war. The idea worked, so Clay wanted to repeat it.

Madison eagerly agreed to the American System, and over the last 2 years of his presidency, instituted the policies. The American System was extremely successful, so I give Madison a lot of credit for enacting the idea.

James Madison's presidency is an admirable story of a man creating a problem, the War of 1812, but then conjuring all his competence and abilities and dedicating it to resolving that issue. Madison may have started the War of 1812, but he prevented the country from coming undone during it and rebuilt the American economy following the ratification of the Treaty of Ghent and the resulting conclusion of the conflict with Henry Clay's American System. He deserves eternal praise for his War of 1812 leadership, but eternal criticism for making a War of 1812 the country had to be led through.